What are the Short-Term and Longer-Term Socio-Psychological Effects of Alcohol Consumption?

Abstract: Alcohol is embedded within the Australian culture with 83% of Australians reporting drinking in 2004. It is associated with many positive social occasions, however, it is the problematic drinking that receives much of the public’s attention due to the harm inflicted on society from individuals who engage in anti-social behaviour while under the influence of alcohol. A contextual framework examining the differences in gender, culture and behaviour in relation to alcohol consumption is offered. The short-term socio-psychological effects of disinhibition, lack of self regulation and self control, and longer-term socio-psychological impact on society – with a particular emphasis on the family structure/relationships and succeeding generations – complete the discussion.

Alcohol is embedded within the Australian culture and is often used for socialisation and at many celebratory occasions. It is a drug that can promote relaxation and feelings of euphoria, but it can also lead to intoxication and dependence, and a wide range of adverse socio-psychological consequences.

Eighty three percent of Australians reported drinking in 2004 and the annual cost to the Australian community of alcohol-related social problems was estimated to be $7.6 billion in 1998-99. Although the per capita consumption of alcohol in Australia has declined since the 1980’s it remains high by world standards (Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy, 2006).

The information provided below examines the differences in gender, culture and behavioural changes associated with alcohol consumption, to offer a contextual framework which underlies problematic drinking behaviour. The short-term socio-psychological effects of disinhibition, lack of self regulation and self control, and the longer-term socio-psychological impact on society – with a particular emphasis on the family structure/relationships and succeeding generations - is also provided.

To gain insight into the socio-psychological factors that underpin alcohol consumption, it is important to understand the differences in gender, and the social and cultural aspects of alcohol consumption. Compared with women throughout the world, men are more likely to drink, consume more alcohol, and cause more problems by doing do. Societies have long used alcohol consumption and its effects as important ways to differentiate, symbolise and regulate gender roles, for example, by making drinking behaviour a demonstration of masculinity, by forbidding women to drink as a symbol of subservience or to prevent sexual autonomy (Obot & Room, 2005).

The social and cultural environment also plays a pivotal role in the development of alcohol drinking patterns. People who are raised in cultures in which drinking is a part of religious and ceremonial activities, or in which alcohol is a traditional part of the family meal, are less prone to alcohol dependency. In contrast, societies in which alcohol purchase is carefully controlled and drinking is regarded as a rite of passage to adulthood, the tendency for abuse appears to be greater (Ray & Ksir cited in Donatelle & Davis, 2000).

Social learning within the family environment is a major, and often the sole, determining factor for inappropriate and harmful patterns of drinking by younger family members (Bandura cited in National Health & Medical Research Council, 2001). Children who develop the view of alcohol being as a prosocial drug and have gained a strong repertorie of coping skills, as opposed to those who view drinking as a means of solving problems, are most likely to drink without problems into adulthood (Hulse, 2002).

Alcohol changes behaviour in a variety of ways depending on the situation and the individual. It may make shy people less inhibited and more willing to talk to others, or it may trigger a search for an anesthetic as a way of dulling the pain of an emotional or social problem. Unfortunately, in people reluctant to share emotions – alcohol consumption may also trigger anti-social behaviour such as violence and aggression. In other words, alcohol will do for the drinker what the drinker expects and wants it to do (Donatelle & Davis, 2000). A study conducted by Dermen & George (2001) upholds this view showing that the relationship between drinking habits and frequency of physical aggression was significantly stronger for those expecting alcohol to increase aggression than for those expecting either a decrease or no effect on aggression.

Although alcohol is part of many festive and joyous occasions with generally more positive social interactions being experienced for the vast majority of the population, it is the negative social psychological effects that resonate more prominently. This is consistent with the notion that “bad is stronger than good” when it comes to human nature (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

The short term social psychological consequences of alcohol consumption is closely linked to disinhibition, lack of self regulation and control resulting in a myriad of anti-social behaviours which, for the most part, are carried out by men. In fact, according to the Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2006) between 41% and 70% of violent crimes in Australia are committed under the influence of alcohol and is associated with (National Health & Medical Research Council 2001; Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy 2006):

> 44% of fire injuries;
> 52% of falls;
> 30% of car accidents and pedestrian deaths;
> 47% of assaults;
> 16% of child abuse;
> 61% of suicides and self-inflicted injury;
> 7% of occupational and machine injuries; and
> 21% of all drowning deaths.

Alcohol dampens emotional responsiveness and reduces inhibitions via its effects on higher cognitive systems, increasing the probability of risk taking behaviours (Curtin et al. 2001; Lane et al. 2004). A study by Finn et al. (2005) revealed that inhibition is further compounded if young people, in particular, experience both alcohol dependence and have a history of conduct disorder/impulsivity.

Evidence has consistently shown alcohol to have adverse effects especially for those who lack self regulation and self control. More recent studies examining the relationship between alcohol use, negative affective states and the offence cycle provide further support that deficits in self regulation characterise not only alcohol misuse and negative affect, but are also implicated in the offending behaviour itself such as rape and child molesting (Aromaki and Lindman, 2001). Further, offenders with antisocial personality disorder, in particular, who participate in heavy drinking and the anticipation of alcohol effects (eg. sexual enhancement, arousal and aggression) may actually facilitate sexual aggression (Day et al. 2003).

It is important to note, however, that although a swaying of these regulatory forces contributes to short term ‘incidences’ of anti-social behaviour, they often have longer-term socio- psychological effects not only for the perpetrator, but also for the people around them.

The longer-term socio-psychological effects of problematic alcohol consumption on the family, in particular, can be devastating with family members adapting to the alcoholic’s behaviour. Family members often take on various uncharacteristic roles to either minimise their feelings about the alcoholic, or out of caring for the person. Children in such dysfunctional families generally assume at least one of the following roles: 1) Family hero: tries to divert attention from the problem by being too good to be true; 2) Scapegoat: draws attention away from the family’s primary problem through delinquency or misbehaviour; 3) Lost child: becomes passive and quietly withdraws from upsetting situations; and 4) Mascot: disrupts tense situations by providing comic relief (Donatelle & Davis, 2000).

There are unique problems of adult children of alcoholics whose difficulties in life stem from a lack of parental nurturing during childhood. For children growing up in alcoholic homes, life is a struggle with many long term socio-psychological effects rising to the surface including an increase in the likelihood of aggression, violence, incest and abuse over a number of years. These children are more likely to have difficulties in developing social attachments, have a stronger need to be in control of all emotions and situations, are inflicted with lower self-esteem and depression, and are much more prone to alcoholic behaviours moving into adulthood (Donatelle & Davis, 2000). It should be noted though that the evidence about the long-term socio-psychological consequences on children is inconclusive, with some studies showing no effect on adult children of problem drinkers, and others showing that for some children there were positive effects, such as development of responsibility and decision-making skills (Velleman cited in Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing 2002; Donatelle & Davis, 2000).

Women are probably more affected by other people’s problem drinking than men, both because more problem drinkers are men and also because women are more likely to feel affected because of societal expectations of women’s ‘caring’ role (Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, 2002). Recent studies indicate that adverse alcohol consumption by mothers has far reaching socio-psychological consequences for their children. Higher levels of mother physical abuse and the presence of mother alcohol problems predicted higher scores on the Beck Anxiety Inventory and Trauma Symptoms Checklist for daughters (Downs et al., 2006), and increased the risk of developing alcohol and mental health problems in their children more generally as they moved into adulthood (Alati, 2005).

Problem drinking can have detrimental effects on martial or intimate partner relationships with physical abuse occurring both directly and indirectly via psychological aggression (Stuart et al., 2006). In fact, martially violent men (with high trait anger) given alcohol are more likely to articulate aggressive verbalisations (Eckhardt, 2007). Marriage can also act as a ‘buffer’ to problem drinking depending on the relationship itself. It appears that there is a ‘marriage effect’ characterised by less consumption and fewer problems among married men and women, as compared with either single or divorced individuals (Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

In summary, alcohol is embedded in the Australian culture and is associated with many social events which provide positive experiences for the vast majority of the population. It is the problematic drinking that receives much of the public’s attention due to the harm inflicted on society from individuals who engage in anti-social behaviour while under the influence of alcohol – more often than not by men and also those people who have been raised in families maladaptive to alcohol consumption. Many short-term socio-psychological effects from problematic alcohol consumption have far reaching consequences in the long-term with a deterioration of relationships, adoption of adverse drinking patterns and mental health problems manifesting in the next generation of drinkers, especially for those who lack inhibition, self regulation and self control.


References
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Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. (2002). National drug strategy: National alcohol research agenda. DoHA. Canberra.

Aromaki, A. & Lindman. R. (2001). Alcohol expectancies in convicted rapists and child molesters. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 11, 94-101.

Baumeister, R. & Bushman, B. (2008). Social psychology & human nature. Thomson Wadsworth. Belmont.

Curtin, J., Patrick, C., Lang, A., Cacioppo, J. & Birbaumer, N. (2001). Alcohol affects emotion through cognition. Psychological Science, 12(6), 527-531.

Day, A., Howells, K., Heseltine, K. & Casey, S. (2003). Alcohol use and negative affect in the offence cycle. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 13, 45-58.

Dermen, K. & George, W. (2001). Alcohol expectancy and the relationship between drinking and physical aggression. The Journal of Psychology, 123(2), 153-161.

Donatelle, R. & Davis, L. (2000). Access to health. Allyn and Bacon. Needham Heights.

Downs, W., Capshew, T. & Rindels, B. (2006). Relationships between adult women’s mental health problems and their childhood experiences of parental violence and psychological aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 21, 439-447.

Eckhardt, C. (2007). Effects of alcohol intoxication on anger experience and expression among partner assaultive men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 61-71.

Finn, P., Bobova, L., Wehner, E., Fargo, S. Rickert, M. (2005). Alcohol expectancies, conduct disorder and early-onset alcoholism: Negative alcohol expectancies are associated with less drinking in non-impulsive versus impulsive subjects. Addiction, 100, 953-962.

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1950's Alcohol Awareness

I came across this 1950s alcohol awareness advertisement which surprisingly highlights the same problems we are experiencing today. I found this a little uncanny - it's as if we've been living in a time warp over the last 50 years! The ad reminded me of the Britney Spears fiasco (see embedded video below) currently on the news where young rich people are often involved with alcohol/drugs and how this infiltrates into their peer group resulting in risky behaviour such as drunk-driving etc.

You'll notice that the main message of this 1950s ad is about not selling liquor to minors - in this case under 21 years since it's in the US. This is similar to our laws here except that for us the age limit is three years younger. I'm not sure how others feel about these restrictions but it's interesting coming from a culture that is quite relaxed about alcohol - it's never locked up, always offered at special occasions (and often at not so special occasions!), and children are able to have a sip of alcohol virtually anytime. This is, of course, provided in a controlled and supportive environment with family and friends overseeing and guiding consumption. In fact, there is mounting evidence showing that this type of supportive environment actually counters alcohol abuse in the longterm.

I think labelling alcohol as 'tabu' from a young age actually increases interest - the more you can't have something, the more you want it! It would be interesting to hear about other peoples thoughts about absolute prohibition of alcohol among minors, or whether a supportive, controlled environment to consume alcohol is the way to go?????

Karen

Britney Loses Custody Over Children

Alcohol - What Will It Lead To?

This clip is from the U.K. showing what alcohol can lead to and the impact on society. This is especially relevant to the effects of alcohol and aggression, drink-driving, unwanted sex, hospitalisation and death. Let me know what you think.